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# Source code for astropy.io.fits.header

    # Licensed under a 3-clause BSD style license - see PYFITS.rst

    import collections
    import copy
    import itertools
    import numbers
    import os
    import re
    import warnings

    from astropy.utils import isiterable
    from astropy.utils.exceptions import AstropyUserWarning

    from ._utils import parse_header
    from .card import KEYWORD_LENGTH, UNDEFINED, Card, _pad
    from .file import _File
    from .util import (
        decode_ascii,
        encode_ascii,
        fileobj_closed,
        fileobj_is_binary,
        path_like,
    )

    BLOCK_SIZE = 2880  # the FITS block size

    # This regular expression can match a *valid* END card which just consists of
    # the string 'END' followed by all spaces, or an *invalid* end card which
    # consists of END, followed by any character that is *not* a valid character
    # for a valid FITS keyword (that is, this is not a keyword like 'ENDER' which
    # starts with 'END' but is not 'END'), followed by any arbitrary bytes.  An
    # invalid end card may also consist of just 'END' with no trailing bytes.
    HEADER_END_RE = re.compile(
        encode_ascii(r"(?:(?P<valid>END {77}) *)|(?P<invalid>END$|END {0,76}[^A-Z0-9_-])")
    )

    # According to the FITS standard the only characters that may appear in a
    # header record are the restricted ASCII chars from 0x20 through 0x7E.
    VALID_HEADER_CHARS = set(map(chr, range(0x20, 0x7F)))
    END_CARD = "END" + " " * 77

    __doctest_skip__ = [
        "Header",
        "Header.comments",
        "Header.fromtextfile",
        "Header.totextfile",
        "Header.set",
        "Header.update",
    ]

    class Header:
        """
        FITS header class.  This class exposes both a dict-like interface and a
        list-like interface to FITS headers.

        The header may be indexed by keyword and, like a dict, the associated value
        will be returned.  When the header contains cards with duplicate keywords,
        only the value of the first card with the given keyword will be returned.
        It is also possible to use a 2-tuple as the index in the form (keyword,
        n)--this returns the n-th value with that keyword, in the case where there
        are duplicate keywords.

        For example::

            >>> header['NAXIS']
            0
            >>> header[('FOO', 1)]  # Return the value of the second FOO keyword
            'foo'

        The header may also be indexed by card number::

            >>> header[0]  # Return the value of the first card in the header
            'T'

        Commentary keywords such as HISTORY and COMMENT are special cases: When
        indexing the Header object with either 'HISTORY' or 'COMMENT' a list of all
        the HISTORY/COMMENT values is returned::

            >>> header['HISTORY']
            This is the first history entry in this header.
            This is the second history entry in this header.
            ...

        See the Astropy documentation for more details on working with headers.

        Notes
        -----
        Although FITS keywords must be exclusively upper case, retrieving an item
        in a `Header` object is case insensitive.
        """

        def __init__(self, cards=[], copy=False):
            """
            Construct a `Header` from an iterable and/or text file.

            Parameters
            ----------
            cards : list of `Card`, optional
                The cards to initialize the header with. Also allowed are other
                `Header` (or `dict`-like) objects.

                .. versionchanged:: 1.2
                    Allowed ``cards`` to be a `dict`-like object.

            copy : bool, optional

                If ``True`` copies the ``cards`` if they were another `Header`
                instance.
                Default is ``False``.

                .. versionadded:: 1.3
            """
            self.clear()

            if isinstance(cards, Header):
                if copy:
                    cards = cards.copy()
                cards = cards.cards
            elif isinstance(cards, dict):
                cards = cards.items()

            for card in cards:
                self.append(card, end=True)

            self._modified = False

        def __len__(self):
            return len(self._cards)

        def __iter__(self):
            for card in self._cards:
                yield card.keyword

        def __contains__(self, keyword):
            if keyword in self._keyword_indices or keyword in self._rvkc_indices:
                # For the most common case (single, standard form keyword lookup)
                # this will work and is an O(1) check.  If it fails that doesn't
                # guarantee absence, just that we have to perform the full set of
                # checks in self._cardindex
                return True
            try:
                self._cardindex(keyword)
            except (KeyError, IndexError):
                return False
            return True

        def __getitem__(self, key):
            if isinstance(key, slice):
                return self.__class__([copy.copy(c) for c in self._cards[key]])
            elif self._haswildcard(key):
                return self.__class__(
                    [copy.copy(self._cards[idx]) for idx in self._wildcardmatch(key)]
                )
            elif isinstance(key, str):
                key = key.strip()
                if key.upper() in Card._commentary_keywords:
                    key = key.upper()
                    # Special case for commentary cards
                    return _HeaderCommentaryCards(self, key)

            if isinstance(key, tuple):
                keyword = key[0]
            else:
                keyword = key

            card = self._cards[self._cardindex(key)]

            if card.field_specifier is not None and keyword == card.rawkeyword:
                # This is RVKC; if only the top-level keyword was specified return
                # the raw value, not the parsed out float value
                return card.rawvalue

            value = card.value
            if value == UNDEFINED:
                return None
            return value

        def __setitem__(self, key, value):
            if self._set_slice(key, value, self):
                return

            if isinstance(value, tuple):
                if len(value) > 2:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "A Header item may be set with either a scalar value, "
                        "a 1-tuple containing a scalar value, or a 2-tuple "
                        "containing a scalar value and comment string."
                    )
                if len(value) == 1:
                    value, comment = value[0], None
                    if value is None:
                        value = UNDEFINED
                elif len(value) == 2:
                    value, comment = value
                    if value is None:
                        value = UNDEFINED
                    if comment is None:
                        comment = ""
            else:
                comment = None

            card = None
            if isinstance(key, numbers.Integral):
                card = self._cards[key]
            elif isinstance(key, tuple):
                card = self._cards[self._cardindex(key)]
            if value is None:
                value = UNDEFINED
            if card:
                card.value = value
                if comment is not None:
                    card.comment = comment
                if card._modified:
                    self._modified = True
            else:
                # If we get an IndexError that should be raised; we don't allow
                # assignment to non-existing indices
                self._update((key, value, comment))

        def __delitem__(self, key):
            if isinstance(key, slice) or self._haswildcard(key):
                # This is very inefficient but it's not a commonly used feature.
                # If someone out there complains that they make heavy use of slice
                # deletions and it's too slow, well, we can worry about it then
                # [the solution is not too complicated--it would be wait 'til all
                # the cards are deleted before updating _keyword_indices rather
                # than updating it once for each card that gets deleted]
                if isinstance(key, slice):
                    indices = range(*key.indices(len(self)))
                    # If the slice step is backwards we want to reverse it, because
                    # it will be reversed in a few lines...
                    if key.step and key.step < 0:
                        indices = reversed(indices)
                else:
                    indices = self._wildcardmatch(key)
                for idx in reversed(indices):
                    del self[idx]
                return
            elif isinstance(key, str):
                # delete ALL cards with the same keyword name
                key = Card.normalize_keyword(key)
                indices = self._keyword_indices
                if key not in self._keyword_indices:
                    indices = self._rvkc_indices

                if key not in indices:
                    # if keyword is not present raise KeyError.
                    # To delete keyword without caring if they were present,
                    # Header.remove(Keyword) can be used with optional argument ignore_missing as True
                    raise KeyError(f"Keyword '{key}' not found.")

                for idx in reversed(indices[key]):
                    # Have to copy the indices list since it will be modified below
                    del self[idx]
                return

            idx = self._cardindex(key)
            card = self._cards[idx]
            keyword = card.keyword
            del self._cards[idx]
            keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(keyword)
            indices = self._keyword_indices[keyword]
            indices.remove(idx)
            if not indices:
                del self._keyword_indices[keyword]

            # Also update RVKC indices if necessary :/
            if card.field_specifier is not None:
                indices = self._rvkc_indices[card.rawkeyword]
                indices.remove(idx)
                if not indices:
                    del self._rvkc_indices[card.rawkeyword]

            # We also need to update all other indices
            self._updateindices(idx, increment=False)
            self._modified = True

        def __repr__(self):
            return self.tostring(sep="\n", endcard=False, padding=False)

        def __str__(self):
            return self.tostring()

        def __eq__(self, other):
            """
            Two Headers are equal only if they have the exact same string
            representation.
            """

            return str(self) == str(other)

        def __add__(self, other):
            temp = self.copy(strip=False)
            temp.extend(other)
            return temp

        def __iadd__(self, other):
            self.extend(other)
            return self

        def _ipython_key_completions_(self):
            return self.__iter__()

        @property
        def cards(self):
            """
            The underlying physical cards that make up this Header; it can be
            looked at, but it should not be modified directly.
            """

            return _CardAccessor(self)

        @property
        def comments(self):
            """
            View the comments associated with each keyword, if any.

            For example, to see the comment on the NAXIS keyword:

                >>> header.comments['NAXIS']
                number of data axes

            Comments can also be updated through this interface:

                >>> header.comments['NAXIS'] = 'Number of data axes'

            """

            return _HeaderComments(self)

        @property
        def _modified(self):
            """
            Whether or not the header has been modified; this is a property so that
            it can also check each card for modifications--cards may have been
            modified directly without the header containing it otherwise knowing.
            """

            modified_cards = any(c._modified for c in self._cards)
            if modified_cards:
                # If any cards were modified then by definition the header was
                # modified
                self.__dict__["_modified"] = True

            return self.__dict__["_modified"]

        @_modified.setter
        def _modified(self, val):
            self.__dict__["_modified"] = val

        @classmethod
        def fromstring(cls, data, sep=""):
            """
            Creates an HDU header from a byte string containing the entire header
            data.

            Parameters
            ----------
            data : str or bytes
               String or bytes containing the entire header.  In the case of bytes
               they will be decoded using latin-1 (only plain ASCII characters are
               allowed in FITS headers but latin-1 allows us to retain any invalid
               bytes that might appear in malformatted FITS files).

            sep : str, optional
                The string separating cards from each other, such as a newline.  By
                default there is no card separator (as is the case in a raw FITS
                file).  In general this is only used in cases where a header was
                printed as text (e.g. with newlines after each card) and you want
                to create a new `Header` from it by copy/pasting.

            Examples
            --------

            >>> from astropy.io.fits import Header
            >>> hdr = Header({'SIMPLE': True})
            >>> Header.fromstring(hdr.tostring()) == hdr
            True

            If you want to create a `Header` from printed text it's not necessary
            to have the exact binary structure as it would appear in a FITS file,
            with the full 80 byte card length.  Rather, each "card" can end in a
            newline and does not have to be padded out to a full card length as
            long as it "looks like" a FITS header:

            >>> hdr = Header.fromstring(\"\"\"\\
            ... SIMPLE  =                    T / conforms to FITS standard
            ... BITPIX  =                    8 / array data type
            ... NAXIS   =                    0 / number of array dimensions
            ... EXTEND  =                    T
            ... \"\"\", sep='\\n')
            >>> hdr['SIMPLE']
            True
            >>> hdr['BITPIX']
            8
            >>> len(hdr)
            4

            Returns
            -------
            `Header`
                A new `Header` instance.
            """

            cards = []

            # If the card separator contains characters that may validly appear in
            # a card, the only way to unambiguously distinguish between cards is to
            # require that they be Card.length long.  However, if the separator
            # contains non-valid characters (namely \n) the cards may be split
            # immediately at the separator
            require_full_cardlength = set(sep).issubset(VALID_HEADER_CHARS)

            if isinstance(data, bytes):
                # FITS supports only ASCII, but decode as latin1 and just take all
                # bytes for now; if it results in mojibake due to e.g. UTF-8
                # encoded data in a FITS header that's OK because it shouldn't be
                # there in the first place--accepting it here still gives us the
                # opportunity to display warnings later during validation
                CONTINUE = b"CONTINUE"
                END = b"END"
                end_card = END_CARD.encode("ascii")
                sep = sep.encode("latin1")
                empty = b""
            else:
                CONTINUE = "CONTINUE"
                END = "END"
                end_card = END_CARD
                empty = ""

            # Split the header into individual cards
            idx = 0
            image = []

            while idx < len(data):
                if require_full_cardlength:
                    end_idx = idx + Card.length
                else:
                    try:
                        end_idx = data.index(sep, idx)
                    except ValueError:
                        end_idx = len(data)

                next_image = data[idx:end_idx]
                idx = end_idx + len(sep)

                if image:
                    if next_image[:8] == CONTINUE:
                        image.append(next_image)
                        continue
                    cards.append(Card.fromstring(empty.join(image)))

                if require_full_cardlength:
                    if next_image == end_card:
                        image = []
                        break
                else:
                    if next_image.split(sep)[0].rstrip() == END:
                        image = []
                        break

                image = [next_image]

            # Add the last image that was found before the end, if any
            if image:
                cards.append(Card.fromstring(empty.join(image)))

            return cls._fromcards(cards)

        @classmethod
        def fromfile(cls, fileobj, sep="", endcard=True, padding=True):
            """
            Similar to :meth:`Header.fromstring`, but reads the header string from
            a given file-like object or filename.

            Parameters
            ----------
            fileobj : str, file-like
                A filename or an open file-like object from which a FITS header is
                to be read.  For open file handles the file pointer must be at the
                beginning of the header.

            sep : str, optional
                The string separating cards from each other, such as a newline.  By
                default there is no card separator (as is the case in a raw FITS
                file).

            endcard : bool, optional
                If True (the default) the header must end with an END card in order
                to be considered valid.  If an END card is not found an
                `OSError` is raised.

            padding : bool, optional
                If True (the default) the header will be required to be padded out
                to a multiple of 2880, the FITS header block size.  Otherwise any
                padding, or lack thereof, is ignored.

            Returns
            -------
            `Header`
                A new `Header` instance.
            """

            close_file = False

            if isinstance(fileobj, path_like):
                # If sep is non-empty we are trying to read a header printed to a
                # text file, so open in text mode by default to support newline
                # handling; if a binary-mode file object is passed in, the user is
                # then on their own w.r.t. newline handling.
                #
                # Otherwise assume we are reading from an actual FITS file and open
                # in binary mode.
                fileobj = os.path.expanduser(fileobj)
                if sep:
                    fileobj = open(fileobj, encoding="latin1")
                else:
                    fileobj = open(fileobj, "rb")

                close_file = True

            try:
                is_binary = fileobj_is_binary(fileobj)

                def block_iter(nbytes):
                    while True:
                        data = fileobj.read(nbytes)

                        if data:
                            yield data
                        else:
                            break

                return cls._from_blocks(block_iter, is_binary, sep, endcard, padding)[1]
            finally:
                if close_file:
                    fileobj.close()

        @classmethod
        def _fromcards(cls, cards):
            header = cls()
            for idx, card in enumerate(cards):
                header._cards.append(card)
                keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(card.keyword)
                header._keyword_indices[keyword].append(idx)
                if card.field_specifier is not None:
                    header._rvkc_indices[card.rawkeyword].append(idx)

            header._modified = False
            return header

        @classmethod
        def _from_blocks(cls, block_iter, is_binary, sep, endcard, padding):
            """
            The meat of `Header.fromfile`; in a separate method so that
            `Header.fromfile` itself is just responsible for wrapping file
            handling.  Also used by `_BaseHDU.fromstring`.

            ``block_iter`` should be a callable which, given a block size n
            (typically 2880 bytes as used by the FITS standard) returns an iterator
            of byte strings of that block size.

            ``is_binary`` specifies whether the returned blocks are bytes or text

            Returns both the entire header *string*, and the `Header` object
            returned by Header.fromstring on that string.
            """

            actual_block_size = _block_size(sep)
            clen = Card.length + len(sep)

            blocks = block_iter(actual_block_size)

            # Read the first header block.
            try:
                block = next(blocks)
            except StopIteration:
                raise EOFError()

            if not is_binary:
                # TODO: There needs to be error handling at *this* level for
                # non-ASCII characters; maybe at this stage decoding latin-1 might
                # be safer
                block = encode_ascii(block)

            read_blocks = []
            is_eof = False
            end_found = False

            # continue reading header blocks until END card or EOF is reached
            while True:
                # find the END card
                end_found, block = cls._find_end_card(block, clen)

                read_blocks.append(decode_ascii(block))

                if end_found:
                    break

                try:
                    block = next(blocks)
                except StopIteration:
                    is_eof = True
                    break

                if not block:
                    is_eof = True
                    break

                if not is_binary:
                    block = encode_ascii(block)

            header_str = "".join(read_blocks)
            _check_padding(header_str, actual_block_size, is_eof, check_block_size=padding)

            if not end_found and is_eof and endcard:
                # TODO: Pass this error to validation framework as an ERROR,
                # rather than raising an exception
                raise OSError("Header missing END card.")

            return header_str, cls.fromstring(header_str, sep=sep)

        @classmethod
        def _find_end_card(cls, block, card_len):
            """
            Utility method to search a header block for the END card and handle
            invalid END cards.

            This method can also returned a modified copy of the input header block
            in case an invalid end card needs to be sanitized.
            """

            for mo in HEADER_END_RE.finditer(block):
                # Ensure the END card was found, and it started on the
                # boundary of a new card (see ticket #142)
                if mo.start() % card_len != 0:
                    continue

                # This must be the last header block, otherwise the
                # file is malformatted
                if mo.group("invalid"):
                    offset = mo.start()
                    trailing = block[offset + 3 : offset + card_len - 3].rstrip()
                    if trailing:
                        trailing = repr(trailing).lstrip("ub")
                        # TODO: Pass this warning up to the validation framework
                        warnings.warn(
                            "Unexpected bytes trailing END keyword: {}; these "
                            "bytes will be replaced with spaces on write.".format(trailing),
                            AstropyUserWarning,
                        )
                    else:
                        # TODO: Pass this warning up to the validation framework
                        warnings.warn(
                            "Missing padding to end of the FITS block after the "
                            "END keyword; additional spaces will be appended to "
                            "the file upon writing to pad out to {} "
                            "bytes.".format(BLOCK_SIZE),
                            AstropyUserWarning,
                        )

                    # Sanitize out invalid END card now that the appropriate
                    # warnings have been issued
                    block = (
                        block[:offset]
                        + encode_ascii(END_CARD)
                        + block[offset + len(END_CARD) :]
                    )

                return True, block

            return False, block

        def tostring(self, sep="", endcard=True, padding=True):
            r"""
            Returns a string representation of the header.

            By default this uses no separator between cards, adds the END card, and
            pads the string with spaces to the next multiple of 2880 bytes.  That
            is, it returns the header exactly as it would appear in a FITS file.

            Parameters
            ----------
            sep : str, optional
                The character or string with which to separate cards.  By default
                there is no separator, but one could use ``'\\n'``, for example, to
                separate each card with a new line

            endcard : bool, optional
                If True (default) adds the END card to the end of the header
                string

            padding : bool, optional
                If True (default) pads the string with spaces out to the next
                multiple of 2880 characters

            Returns
            -------
            str
                A string representing a FITS header.
            """

            lines = []
            for card in self._cards:
                s = str(card)
                # Cards with CONTINUE cards may be longer than 80 chars; so break
                # them into multiple lines
                while s:
                    lines.append(s[: Card.length])
                    s = s[Card.length :]

            s = sep.join(lines)
            if endcard:
                s += sep + _pad("END")
            if padding:
                s += " " * _pad_length(len(s))
            return s

        def tofile(self, fileobj, sep="", endcard=True, padding=True, overwrite=False):
            r"""
            Writes the header to file or file-like object.

            By default this writes the header exactly as it would be written to a
            FITS file, with the END card included and padding to the next multiple
            of 2880 bytes.  However, aspects of this may be controlled.

            Parameters
            ----------
            fileobj : path-like or file-like, optional
                Either the pathname of a file, or an open file handle or file-like
                object.

            sep : str, optional
                The character or string with which to separate cards.  By default
                there is no separator, but one could use ``'\\n'``, for example, to
                separate each card with a new line

            endcard : bool, optional
                If `True` (default) adds the END card to the end of the header
                string

            padding : bool, optional
                If `True` (default) pads the string with spaces out to the next
                multiple of 2880 characters

            overwrite : bool, optional
                If ``True``, overwrite the output file if it exists. Raises an
                ``OSError`` if ``False`` and the output file exists. Default is
                ``False``.
            """

            close_file = fileobj_closed(fileobj)

            if not isinstance(fileobj, _File):
                fileobj = _File(fileobj, mode="ostream", overwrite=overwrite)

            try:
                blocks = self.tostring(sep=sep, endcard=endcard, padding=padding)
                actual_block_size = _block_size(sep)
                if padding and len(blocks) % actual_block_size != 0:
                    raise OSError(
                        "Header size ({}) is not a multiple of block size ({}).".format(
                            len(blocks) - actual_block_size + BLOCK_SIZE, BLOCK_SIZE
                        )
                    )

                fileobj.flush()
                fileobj.write(blocks.encode("ascii"))
                fileobj.flush()
            finally:
                if close_file:
                    fileobj.close()

        @classmethod
        def fromtextfile(cls, fileobj, endcard=False):
            """
            Read a header from a simple text file or file-like object.

            Equivalent to::

                >>> Header.fromfile(fileobj, sep='\\n', endcard=False,
                ...                 padding=False)

            See Also
            --------
            fromfile
            """

            return cls.fromfile(fileobj, sep="\n", endcard=endcard, padding=False)

        def totextfile(self, fileobj, endcard=False, overwrite=False):
            """
            Write the header as text to a file or a file-like object.

            Equivalent to::

                >>> Header.tofile(fileobj, sep='\\n', endcard=False,
                ...               padding=False, overwrite=overwrite)

            See Also
            --------
            tofile
            """

            self.tofile(
                fileobj, sep="\n", endcard=endcard, padding=False, overwrite=overwrite
            )

        def clear(self):
            """
            Remove all cards from the header.
            """

            self._cards = []
            self._keyword_indices = collections.defaultdict(list)
            self._rvkc_indices = collections.defaultdict(list)

        def copy(self, strip=False):
            """
            Make a copy of the :class:`Header`.

            .. versionchanged:: 1.3
                `copy.copy` and `copy.deepcopy` on a `Header` will call this
                method.

            Parameters
            ----------
            strip : bool, optional
                If `True`, strip any headers that are specific to one of the
                standard HDU types, so that this header can be used in a different
                HDU.

            Returns
            -------
            `Header`
                A new :class:`Header` instance.
            """

            tmp = self.__class__(copy.copy(card) for card in self._cards)
            if strip:
                tmp.strip()
            return tmp

        def __copy__(self):
            return self.copy()

        def __deepcopy__(self, *args, **kwargs):
            return self.copy()

        @classmethod
        def fromkeys(cls, iterable, value=None):
            """
            Similar to :meth:`dict.fromkeys`--creates a new `Header` from an
            iterable of keywords and an optional default value.

            This method is not likely to be particularly useful for creating real
            world FITS headers, but it is useful for testing.

            Parameters
            ----------
            iterable
                Any iterable that returns strings representing FITS keywords.

            value : optional
                A default value to assign to each keyword; must be a valid type for
                FITS keywords.

            Returns
            -------
            `Header`
                A new `Header` instance.
            """

            d = cls()
            if not isinstance(value, tuple):
                value = (value,)
            for key in iterable:
                d.append((key,) + value)
            return d

        def get(self, key, default=None):
            """
            Similar to :meth:`dict.get`--returns the value associated with keyword
            in the header, or a default value if the keyword is not found.

            Parameters
            ----------
            key : str
                A keyword that may or may not be in the header.

            default : optional
                A default value to return if the keyword is not found in the
                header.

            Returns
            -------
            value: str, number, complex, bool, or ``astropy.io.fits.card.Undefined``
                The value associated with the given keyword, or the default value
                if the keyword is not in the header.
            """

            try:
                return self[key]
            except (KeyError, IndexError):
                return default

        def set(self, keyword, value=None, comment=None, before=None, after=None):
            """
            Set the value and/or comment and/or position of a specified keyword.

            If the keyword does not already exist in the header, a new keyword is
            created in the specified position, or appended to the end of the header
            if no position is specified.

            This method is similar to :meth:`Header.update` prior to Astropy v0.1.

            .. note::
                It should be noted that ``header.set(keyword, value)`` and
                ``header.set(keyword, value, comment)`` are equivalent to
                ``header[keyword] = value`` and
                ``header[keyword] = (value, comment)`` respectively.

                New keywords can also be inserted relative to existing keywords
                using, for example::

                    >>> header.insert('NAXIS1', ('NAXIS', 2, 'Number of axes'))

                to insert before an existing keyword, or::

                    >>> header.insert('NAXIS', ('NAXIS1', 4096), after=True)

                to insert after an existing keyword.

                The only advantage of using :meth:`Header.set` is that it
                easily replaces the old usage of :meth:`Header.update` both
                conceptually and in terms of function signature.

            Parameters
            ----------
            keyword : str
                A header keyword

            value : str, optional
                The value to set for the given keyword; if None the existing value
                is kept, but '' may be used to set a blank value

            comment : str, optional
                The comment to set for the given keyword; if None the existing
                comment is kept, but ``''`` may be used to set a blank comment

            before : str, int, optional
                Name of the keyword, or index of the `Card` before which this card
                should be located in the header.  The argument ``before`` takes
                precedence over ``after`` if both specified.

            after : str, int, optional
                Name of the keyword, or index of the `Card` after which this card
                should be located in the header.

            """

            # Create a temporary card that looks like the one being set; if the
            # temporary card turns out to be a RVKC this will make it easier to
            # deal with the idiosyncrasies thereof
            # Don't try to make a temporary card though if they keyword looks like
            # it might be a HIERARCH card or is otherwise invalid--this step is
            # only for validating RVKCs.
            if (
                len(keyword) <= KEYWORD_LENGTH
                and Card._keywd_FSC_RE.match(keyword)
                and keyword not in self._keyword_indices
            ):
                new_card = Card(keyword, value, comment)
                new_keyword = new_card.keyword
            else:
                new_keyword = keyword

            if new_keyword not in Card._commentary_keywords and new_keyword in self:
                if comment is None:
                    comment = self.comments[keyword]
                if value is None:
                    value = self[keyword]

                self[keyword] = (value, comment)

                if before is not None or after is not None:
                    card = self._cards[self._cardindex(keyword)]
                    self._relativeinsert(card, before=before, after=after, replace=True)
            elif before is not None or after is not None:
                self._relativeinsert((keyword, value, comment), before=before, after=after)
            else:
                self[keyword] = (value, comment)

        def items(self):
            """Like :meth:`dict.items`."""

            for card in self._cards:
                yield card.keyword, None if card.value == UNDEFINED else card.value

        def keys(self):
            """
            Like :meth:`dict.keys`--iterating directly over the `Header`
            instance has the same behavior.
            """

            for card in self._cards:
                yield card.keyword

        def values(self):
            """Like :meth:`dict.values`."""

            for card in self._cards:
                yield None if card.value == UNDEFINED else card.value

        def pop(self, *args):
            """
            Works like :meth:`list.pop` if no arguments or an index argument are
            supplied; otherwise works like :meth:`dict.pop`.
            """

            if len(args) > 2:
                raise TypeError(f"Header.pop expected at most 2 arguments, got {len(args)}")

            if len(args) == 0:
                key = -1
            else:
                key = args[0]

            try:
                value = self[key]
            except (KeyError, IndexError):
                if len(args) == 2:
                    return args[1]
                raise

            del self[key]
            return value

        def popitem(self):
            """Similar to :meth:`dict.popitem`."""

            try:
                k, v = next(self.items())
            except StopIteration:
                raise KeyError("Header is empty")
            del self[k]
            return k, v

        def setdefault(self, key, default=None):
            """Similar to :meth:`dict.setdefault`."""

            try:
                return self[key]
            except (KeyError, IndexError):
                self[key] = default
            return default

        def update(self, *args, **kwargs):
            """
            Update the Header with new keyword values, updating the values of
            existing keywords and appending new keywords otherwise; similar to
            `dict.update`.

            `update` accepts either a dict-like object or an iterable.  In the
            former case the keys must be header keywords and the values may be
            either scalar values or (value, comment) tuples.  In the case of an
            iterable the items must be (keyword, value) tuples or (keyword, value,
            comment) tuples.

            Arbitrary arguments are also accepted, in which case the update() is
            called again with the kwargs dict as its only argument.  That is,

            ::

                >>> header.update(NAXIS1=100, NAXIS2=100)

            is equivalent to::

                header.update({'NAXIS1': 100, 'NAXIS2': 100})

            .. warning::
                As this method works similarly to `dict.update` it is very
                different from the ``Header.update()`` method in Astropy v0.1.
                Use of the old API was
                **deprecated** for a long time and is now removed. Most uses of the
                old API can be replaced as follows:

                * Replace ::

                      header.update(keyword, value)

                  with ::

                      header[keyword] = value

                * Replace ::

                      header.update(keyword, value, comment=comment)

                  with ::

                      header[keyword] = (value, comment)

                * Replace ::

                      header.update(keyword, value, before=before_keyword)

                  with ::

                      header.insert(before_keyword, (keyword, value))

                * Replace ::

                      header.update(keyword, value, after=after_keyword)

                  with ::

                      header.insert(after_keyword, (keyword, value),
                                    after=True)

                See also :meth:`Header.set` which is a new method that provides an
                interface similar to the old ``Header.update()`` and may help make
                transition a little easier.

            """

            if args:
                other = args[0]
            else:
                other = None

            def update_from_dict(k, v):
                if not isinstance(v, tuple):
                    card = Card(k, v)
                elif 0 < len(v) <= 2:
                    card = Card(*((k,) + v))
                else:
                    raise ValueError(
                        "Header update value for key %r is invalid; the "
                        "value must be either a scalar, a 1-tuple "
                        "containing the scalar value, or a 2-tuple "
                        "containing the value and a comment string." % k
                    )
                self._update(card)

            if other is None:
                pass
            elif isinstance(other, Header):
                for card in other.cards:
                    self._update(card)
            elif hasattr(other, "items"):
                for k, v in other.items():
                    update_from_dict(k, v)
            elif hasattr(other, "keys"):
                for k in other.keys():
                    update_from_dict(k, other[k])
            else:
                for idx, card in enumerate(other):
                    if isinstance(card, Card):
                        self._update(card)
                    elif isinstance(card, tuple) and (1 < len(card) <= 3):
                        self._update(Card(*card))
                    else:
                        raise ValueError(
                            "Header update sequence item #{} is invalid; "
                            "the item must either be a 2-tuple containing "
                            "a keyword and value, or a 3-tuple containing "
                            "a keyword, value, and comment string.".format(idx)
                        )
            if kwargs:
                self.update(kwargs)

        def append(self, card=None, useblanks=True, bottom=False, end=False):
            """
            Appends a new keyword+value card to the end of the Header, similar
            to `list.append`.

            By default if the last cards in the Header have commentary keywords,
            this will append the new keyword before the commentary (unless the new
            keyword is also commentary).

            Also differs from `list.append` in that it can be called with no
            arguments: In this case a blank card is appended to the end of the
            Header.  In the case all the keyword arguments are ignored.

            Parameters
            ----------
            card : str, tuple
                A keyword or a (keyword, value, [comment]) tuple representing a
                single header card; the comment is optional in which case a
                2-tuple may be used

            useblanks : bool, optional
                If there are blank cards at the end of the Header, replace the
                first blank card so that the total number of cards in the Header
                does not increase.  Otherwise preserve the number of blank cards.

            bottom : bool, optional
                If True, instead of appending after the last non-commentary card,
                append after the last non-blank card.

            end : bool, optional
                If True, ignore the useblanks and bottom options, and append at the
                very end of the Header.

            """

            if isinstance(card, str):
                card = Card(card)
            elif isinstance(card, tuple):
                card = Card(*card)
            elif card is None:
                card = Card()
            elif not isinstance(card, Card):
                raise ValueError(
                    "The value appended to a Header must be either a keyword or "
                    "(keyword, value, [comment]) tuple; got: {!r}".format(card)
                )

            if not end and card.is_blank:
                # Blank cards should always just be appended to the end
                end = True

            if end:
                self._cards.append(card)
                idx = len(self._cards) - 1
            else:
                idx = len(self._cards) - 1
                while idx >= 0 and self._cards[idx].is_blank:
                    idx -= 1

                if not bottom and card.keyword not in Card._commentary_keywords:
                    while (
                        idx >= 0 and self._cards[idx].keyword in Card._commentary_keywords
                    ):
                        idx -= 1

                idx += 1
                self._cards.insert(idx, card)
                self._updateindices(idx)

            keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(card.keyword)
            self._keyword_indices[keyword].append(idx)
            if card.field_specifier is not None:
                self._rvkc_indices[card.rawkeyword].append(idx)

            if not end:
                # If the appended card was a commentary card, and it was appended
                # before existing cards with the same keyword, the indices for
                # cards with that keyword may have changed
                if not bottom and card.keyword in Card._commentary_keywords:
                    self._keyword_indices[keyword].sort()

                # Finally, if useblanks, delete a blank cards from the end
                if useblanks and self._countblanks():
                    # Don't do this unless there is at least one blanks at the end
                    # of the header; we need to convert the card to its string
                    # image to see how long it is.  In the vast majority of cases
                    # this will just be 80 (Card.length) but it may be longer for
                    # CONTINUE cards
                    self._useblanks(len(str(card)) // Card.length)

            self._modified = True

        def extend(
            self,
            cards,
            strip=True,
            unique=False,
            update=False,
            update_first=False,
            useblanks=True,
            bottom=False,
            end=False,
        ):
            """
            Appends multiple keyword+value cards to the end of the header, similar
            to `list.extend`.

            Parameters
            ----------
            cards : iterable
                An iterable of (keyword, value, [comment]) tuples; see
                `Header.append`.

            strip : bool, optional
                Remove any keywords that have meaning only to specific types of
                HDUs, so that only more general keywords are added from extension
                Header or Card list (default: `True`).

            unique : bool, optional
                If `True`, ensures that no duplicate keywords are appended;
                keywords already in this header are simply discarded.  The
                exception is commentary keywords (COMMENT, HISTORY, etc.): they are
                only treated as duplicates if their values match.

            update : bool, optional
                If `True`, update the current header with the values and comments
                from duplicate keywords in the input header.  This supersedes the
                ``unique`` argument.  Commentary keywords are treated the same as
                if ``unique=True``.

            update_first : bool, optional
                If the first keyword in the header is 'SIMPLE', and the first
                keyword in the input header is 'XTENSION', the 'SIMPLE' keyword is
                replaced by the 'XTENSION' keyword.  Likewise if the first keyword
                in the header is 'XTENSION' and the first keyword in the input
                header is 'SIMPLE', the 'XTENSION' keyword is replaced by the
                'SIMPLE' keyword.  This behavior is otherwise dumb as to whether or
                not the resulting header is a valid primary or extension header.
                This is mostly provided to support backwards compatibility with the
                old ``Header.fromTxtFile`` method, and only applies if
                ``update=True``.

            useblanks, bottom, end : bool, optional
                These arguments are passed to :meth:`Header.append` while appending
                new cards to the header.
            """

            temp = self.__class__(cards)
            if strip:
                temp.strip()

            if len(self):
                first = self._cards[0].keyword
            else:
                first = None

            # We don't immediately modify the header, because first we need to sift
            # out any duplicates in the new header prior to adding them to the
            # existing header, but while *allowing* duplicates from the header
            # being extended from (see ticket #156)
            extend_cards = []

            for idx, card in enumerate(temp.cards):
                keyword = card.keyword
                if keyword not in Card._commentary_keywords:
                    if unique and not update and keyword in self:
                        continue
                    elif update:
                        if idx == 0 and update_first:
                            # Dumbly update the first keyword to either SIMPLE or
                            # XTENSION as the case may be, as was in the case in
                            # Header.fromTxtFile
                            if (keyword == "SIMPLE" and first == "XTENSION") or (
                                keyword == "XTENSION" and first == "SIMPLE"
                            ):
                                del self[0]
                                self.insert(0, card)
                            else:
                                self[keyword] = (card.value, card.comment)
                        elif keyword in self:
                            self[keyword] = (card.value, card.comment)
                        else:
                            extend_cards.append(card)
                    else:
                        extend_cards.append(card)
                else:
                    if (unique or update) and keyword in self:
                        if card.is_blank:
                            extend_cards.append(card)
                            continue

                        for value in self[keyword]:
                            if value == card.value:
                                break
                        else:
                            extend_cards.append(card)
                    else:
                        extend_cards.append(card)

            for card in extend_cards:
                self.append(card, useblanks=useblanks, bottom=bottom, end=end)

        def count(self, keyword):
            """
            Returns the count of the given keyword in the header, similar to
            `list.count` if the Header object is treated as a list of keywords.

            Parameters
            ----------
            keyword : str
                The keyword to count instances of in the header

            """

            keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(keyword)

            # We have to look before we leap, since otherwise _keyword_indices,
            # being a defaultdict, will create an entry for the nonexistent keyword
            if keyword not in self._keyword_indices:
                raise KeyError(f"Keyword {keyword!r} not found.")

            return len(self._keyword_indices[keyword])

        def index(self, keyword, start=None, stop=None):
            """
            Returns the index if the first instance of the given keyword in the
            header, similar to `list.index` if the Header object is treated as a
            list of keywords.

            Parameters
            ----------
            keyword : str
                The keyword to look up in the list of all keywords in the header

            start : int, optional
                The lower bound for the index

            stop : int, optional
                The upper bound for the index

            """

            if start is None:
                start = 0

            if stop is None:
                stop = len(self._cards)

            if stop < start:
                step = -1
            else:
                step = 1

            norm_keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(keyword)

            for idx in range(start, stop, step):
                if self._cards[idx].keyword.upper() == norm_keyword:
                    return idx
            else:
                raise ValueError(f"The keyword {keyword!r} is not in the  header.")

        def insert(self, key, card, useblanks=True, after=False):
            """
            Inserts a new keyword+value card into the Header at a given location,
            similar to `list.insert`.

            Parameters
            ----------
            key : int, str, or tuple
                The index into the list of header keywords before which the
                new keyword should be inserted, or the name of a keyword before
                which the new keyword should be inserted.  Can also accept a
                (keyword, index) tuple for inserting around duplicate keywords.

            card : str, tuple
                A keyword or a (keyword, value, [comment]) tuple; see
                `Header.append`

            useblanks : bool, optional
                If there are blank cards at the end of the Header, replace the
                first blank card so that the total number of cards in the Header
                does not increase.  Otherwise preserve the number of blank cards.

            after : bool, optional
                If set to `True`, insert *after* the specified index or keyword,
                rather than before it.  Defaults to `False`.
            """

            if not isinstance(key, numbers.Integral):
                # Don't pass through ints to _cardindex because it will not take
                # kindly to indices outside the existing number of cards in the
                # header, which insert needs to be able to support (for example
                # when inserting into empty headers)
                idx = self._cardindex(key)
            else:
                idx = key

            if after:
                if idx == -1:
                    idx = len(self._cards)
                else:
                    idx += 1

            if idx >= len(self._cards):
                # This is just an append (Though it must be an append absolutely to
                # the bottom, ignoring blanks, etc.--the point of the insert method
                # is that you get exactly what you asked for with no surprises)
                self.append(card, end=True)
                return

            if isinstance(card, str):
                card = Card(card)
            elif isinstance(card, tuple):
                card = Card(*card)
            elif not isinstance(card, Card):
                raise ValueError(
                    "The value inserted into a Header must be either a keyword or "
                    "(keyword, value, [comment]) tuple; got: {!r}".format(card)
                )

            self._cards.insert(idx, card)

            keyword = card.keyword

            # If idx was < 0, determine the actual index according to the rules
            # used by list.insert()
            if idx < 0:
                idx += len(self._cards) - 1
                if idx < 0:
                    idx = 0

            # All the keyword indices above the insertion point must be updated
            self._updateindices(idx)

            keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(keyword)
            self._keyword_indices[keyword].append(idx)
            count = len(self._keyword_indices[keyword])
            if count > 1:
                # There were already keywords with this same name
                if keyword not in Card._commentary_keywords:
                    warnings.warn(
                        "A {!r} keyword already exists in this header.  Inserting "
                        "duplicate keyword.".format(keyword),
                        AstropyUserWarning,
                    )
                self._keyword_indices[keyword].sort()

            if card.field_specifier is not None:
                # Update the index of RVKC as well
                rvkc_indices = self._rvkc_indices[card.rawkeyword]
                rvkc_indices.append(idx)
                rvkc_indices.sort()

            if useblanks:
                self._useblanks(len(str(card)) // Card.length)

            self._modified = True

        def remove(self, keyword, ignore_missing=False, remove_all=False):
            """
            Removes the first instance of the given keyword from the header similar
            to `list.remove` if the Header object is treated as a list of keywords.

            Parameters
            ----------
            keyword : str
                The keyword of which to remove the first instance in the header.

            ignore_missing : bool, optional
                When True, ignores missing keywords.  Otherwise, if the keyword
                is not present in the header a KeyError is raised.

            remove_all : bool, optional
                When True, all instances of keyword will be removed.
                Otherwise only the first instance of the given keyword is removed.

            """
            keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(keyword)
            if keyword in self._keyword_indices:
                del self[self._keyword_indices[keyword][0]]
                if remove_all:
                    while keyword in self._keyword_indices:
                        del self[self._keyword_indices[keyword][0]]
            elif not ignore_missing:
                raise KeyError(f"Keyword '{keyword}' not found.")

        def rename_keyword(self, oldkeyword, newkeyword, force=False):
            """
            Rename a card's keyword in the header.

            Parameters
            ----------
            oldkeyword : str or int
                Old keyword or card index

            newkeyword : str
                New keyword

            force : bool, optional
                When `True`, if the new keyword already exists in the header, force
                the creation of a duplicate keyword. Otherwise a
                `ValueError` is raised.
            """

            oldkeyword = Card.normalize_keyword(oldkeyword)
            newkeyword = Card.normalize_keyword(newkeyword)

            if newkeyword == "CONTINUE":
                raise ValueError("Can not rename to CONTINUE")

            if (
                newkeyword in Card._commentary_keywords
                or oldkeyword in Card._commentary_keywords
            ):
                if not (
                    newkeyword in Card._commentary_keywords
                    and oldkeyword in Card._commentary_keywords
                ):
                    raise ValueError(
                        "Regular and commentary keys can not be renamed to each other."
                    )
            elif not force and newkeyword in self:
                raise ValueError(f"Intended keyword {newkeyword} already exists in header.")

            idx = self.index(oldkeyword)
            card = self._cards[idx]
            del self[idx]
            self.insert(idx, (newkeyword, card.value, card.comment))

        def add_history(self, value, before=None, after=None):
            """
            Add a ``HISTORY`` card.

            Parameters
            ----------
            value : str
                History text to be added.

            before : str or int, optional
                Same as in `Header.update`

            after : str or int, optional
                Same as in `Header.update`
            """

            self._add_commentary("HISTORY", value, before=before, after=after)

        def add_comment(self, value, before=None, after=None):
            """
            Add a ``COMMENT`` card.

            Parameters
            ----------
            value : str
                Text to be added.

            before : str or int, optional
                Same as in `Header.update`

            after : str or int, optional
                Same as in `Header.update`
            """

            self._add_commentary("COMMENT", value, before=before, after=after)

        def add_blank(self, value="", before=None, after=None):
            """
            Add a blank card.

            Parameters
            ----------
            value : str, optional
                Text to be added.

            before : str or int, optional
                Same as in `Header.update`

            after : str or int, optional
                Same as in `Header.update`
            """

            self._add_commentary("", value, before=before, after=after)

        def strip(self):
            """
            Strip cards specific to a certain kind of header.

            Strip cards like ``SIMPLE``, ``BITPIX``, etc. so the rest of
            the header can be used to reconstruct another kind of header.
            """

            # TODO: Previously this only deleted some cards specific to an HDU if
            # _hdutype matched that type.  But it seemed simple enough to just
            # delete all desired cards anyways, and just ignore the KeyErrors if
            # they don't exist.
            # However, it might be desirable to make this extendable somehow--have
            # a way for HDU classes to specify some headers that are specific only
            # to that type, and should be removed otherwise.

            naxis = self.get("NAXIS", 0)
            tfields = self.get("TFIELDS", 0)

            for idx in range(naxis):
                self.remove("NAXIS" + str(idx + 1), ignore_missing=True)

            for name in (
                "TFORM",
                "TSCAL",
                "TZERO",
                "TNULL",
                "TTYPE",
                "TUNIT",
                "TDISP",
                "TDIM",
                "THEAP",
                "TBCOL",
            ):
                for idx in range(tfields):
                    self.remove(name + str(idx + 1), ignore_missing=True)

            for name in (
                "SIMPLE",
                "XTENSION",
                "BITPIX",
                "NAXIS",
                "EXTEND",
                "PCOUNT",
                "GCOUNT",
                "GROUPS",
                "BSCALE",
                "BZERO",
                "TFIELDS",
            ):
                self.remove(name, ignore_missing=True)

        @property
        def data_size(self):
            """
            Return the size (in bytes) of the data portion following the `Header`.
            """
            return _hdr_data_size(self)

        @property
        def data_size_padded(self):
            """
            Return the size (in bytes) of the data portion following the `Header`
            including padding.
            """
            size = self.data_size
            return size + _pad_length(size)

        def _update(self, card):
            """
            The real update code.  If keyword already exists, its value and/or
            comment will be updated.  Otherwise a new card will be appended.

            This will not create a duplicate keyword except in the case of
            commentary cards.  The only other way to force creation of a duplicate
            is to use the insert(), append(), or extend() methods.
            """

            keyword, value, comment = card

            # Lookups for existing/known keywords are case-insensitive
            keyword = keyword.strip().upper()
            if keyword.startswith("HIERARCH "):
                keyword = keyword[9:]

            if (
                keyword not in Card._commentary_keywords
                and keyword in self._keyword_indices
            ):
                # Easy; just update the value/comment
                idx = self._keyword_indices[keyword][0]
                existing_card = self._cards[idx]
                existing_card.value = value
                if comment is not None:
                    # '' should be used to explicitly blank a comment
                    existing_card.comment = comment
                if existing_card._modified:
                    self._modified = True
            elif keyword in Card._commentary_keywords:
                cards = self._splitcommentary(keyword, value)
                if keyword in self._keyword_indices:
                    # Append after the last keyword of the same type
                    idx = self.index(keyword, start=len(self) - 1, stop=-1)
                    isblank = not (keyword or value or comment)
                    for c in reversed(cards):
                        self.insert(idx + 1, c, useblanks=(not isblank))
                else:
                    for c in cards:
                        self.append(c, bottom=True)
            else:
                # A new keyword! self.append() will handle updating _modified
                self.append(card)

        def _cardindex(self, key):
            """Returns an index into the ._cards list given a valid lookup key."""

            # This used to just set key = (key, 0) and then go on to act as if the
            # user passed in a tuple, but it's much more common to just be given a
            # string as the key, so optimize more for that case
            if isinstance(key, str):
                keyword = key
                n = 0
            elif isinstance(key, numbers.Integral):
                # If < 0, determine the actual index
                if key < 0:
                    key += len(self._cards)
                if key < 0 or key >= len(self._cards):
                    raise IndexError("Header index out of range.")
                return key
            elif isinstance(key, slice):
                return key
            elif isinstance(key, tuple):
                if (
                    len(key) != 2
                    or not isinstance(key[0], str)
                    or not isinstance(key[1], numbers.Integral)
                ):
                    raise ValueError(
                        "Tuple indices must be 2-tuples consisting of a "
                        "keyword string and an integer index."
                    )
                keyword, n = key
            else:
                raise ValueError(
                    "Header indices must be either a string, a 2-tuple, or an integer."
                )

            keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(keyword)
            # Returns the index into _cards for the n-th card with the given
            # keyword (where n is 0-based)
            indices = self._keyword_indices.get(keyword, None)

            if keyword and not indices:
                if len(keyword) > KEYWORD_LENGTH or "." in keyword:
                    raise KeyError(f"Keyword {keyword!r} not found.")
                else:
                    # Maybe it's a RVKC?
                    indices = self._rvkc_indices.get(keyword, None)

            if not indices:
                raise KeyError(f"Keyword {keyword!r} not found.")

            try:
                return indices[n]
            except IndexError:
                raise IndexError(
                    "There are only {} {!r} cards in the header.".format(
                        len(indices), keyword
                    )
                )

        def _keyword_from_index(self, idx):
            """
            Given an integer index, return the (keyword, repeat) tuple that index
            refers to.  For most keywords the repeat will always be zero, but it
            may be greater than zero for keywords that are duplicated (especially
            commentary keywords).

            In a sense this is the inverse of self.index, except that it also
            supports duplicates.
            """

            if idx < 0:
                idx += len(self._cards)

            keyword = self._cards[idx].keyword
            keyword = Card.normalize_keyword(keyword)
            repeat = self._keyword_indices[keyword].index(idx)
            return keyword, repeat

        def _relativeinsert(self, card, before=None, after=None, replace=False):
            """
            Inserts a new card before or after an existing card; used to
            implement support for the legacy before/after keyword arguments to
            Header.update().

            If replace=True, move an existing card with the same keyword.
            """

            if before is None:
                insertionkey = after
            else:
                insertionkey = before

            def get_insertion_idx():
                if not (
                    isinstance(insertionkey, numbers.Integral)
                    and insertionkey >= len(self._cards)
                ):
                    idx = self._cardindex(insertionkey)
                else:
                    idx = insertionkey

                if before is None:
                    idx += 1

                return idx

            if replace:
                # The card presumably already exists somewhere in the header.
                # Check whether or not we actually have to move it; if it does need
                # to be moved we just delete it and then it will be reinserted
                # below
                old_idx = self._cardindex(card.keyword)
                insertion_idx = get_insertion_idx()

                if insertion_idx >= len(self._cards) and old_idx == len(self._cards) - 1:
                    # The card would be appended to the end, but it's already at
                    # the end
                    return

                if before is not None:
                    if old_idx == insertion_idx - 1:
                        return
                elif after is not None and old_idx == insertion_idx:
                    return

                del self[old_idx]

            # Even if replace=True, the insertion idx may have changed since the
            # old card was deleted
            idx = get_insertion_idx()

            if card[0] in Card._commentary_keywords:
                cards = reversed(self._splitcommentary(card[0], card[1]))
            else:
                cards = [card]
            for c in cards:
                self.insert(idx, c)

        def _updateindices(self, idx, increment=True):
            """
            For all cards with index above idx, increment or decrement its index
            value in the keyword_indices dict.
            """
            if idx > len(self._cards):
                # Save us some effort
                return

            increment = 1 if increment else -1

            for index_sets in (self._keyword_indices, self._rvkc_indices):
                for indices in index_sets.values():
                    for jdx, keyword_index in enumerate(indices):
                        if keyword_index >= idx:
                            indices[jdx] += increment

        def _countblanks(self):
            """Returns the number of blank cards at the end of the Header."""

            for idx in range(1, len(self._cards)):
                if not self._cards[-idx].is_blank:
                    return idx - 1
            return 0

        def _useblanks(self, count):
            for _ in range(count):
                if self._cards[-1].is_blank:
                    del self[-1]
                else:
                    break

        def _haswildcard(self, keyword):
            """Return `True` if the input keyword contains a wildcard pattern."""

            return isinstance(keyword, str) and (
                keyword.endswith("...") or "*" in keyword or "?" in keyword
            )

        def _wildcardmatch(self, pattern):
            """
            Returns a list of indices of the cards matching the given wildcard
            pattern.

             * '*' matches 0 or more characters
             * '?' matches a single character
             * '...' matches 0 or more of any non-whitespace character
            """

            pattern = pattern.replace("*", r".*").replace("?", r".")
            pattern = pattern.replace("...", r"\S*") + "$"
            pattern_re = re.compile(pattern, re.I)

            return [
                idx
                for idx, card in enumerate(self._cards)
                if pattern_re.match(card.keyword)
            ]

        def _set_slice(self, key, value, target):
            """
            Used to implement Header.__setitem__ and CardAccessor.__setitem__.
            """

            if isinstance(key, slice) or self._haswildcard(key):
                if isinstance(key, slice):
                    indices = range(*key.indices(len(target)))
                else:
                    indices = self._wildcardmatch(key)

                if isinstance(value, str) or not isiterable(value):
                    value = itertools.repeat(value, len(indices))

                for idx, val in zip(indices, value):
                    target[idx] = val

                return True

            return False

        def _splitcommentary(self, keyword, value):
            """
            Given a commentary keyword and value, returns a list of the one or more
            cards needed to represent the full value.  This is primarily used to
            create the multiple commentary cards needed to represent a long value
            that won't fit into a single commentary card.
            """

            # The maximum value in each card can be the maximum card length minus
            # the maximum key length (which can include spaces if they key length
            # less than 8
            maxlen = Card.length - KEYWORD_LENGTH
            valuestr = str(value)

            if len(valuestr) <= maxlen:
                # The value can fit in a single card
                cards = [Card(keyword, value)]
            else:
                # The value must be split across multiple consecutive commentary
                # cards
                idx = 0
                cards = []
                while idx < len(valuestr):
                    cards.append(Card(keyword, valuestr[idx : idx + maxlen]))
                    idx += maxlen
            return cards

        def _add_commentary(self, key, value, before=None, after=None):
            """
            Add a commentary card.

            If ``before`` and ``after`` are `None`, add to the last occurrence
            of cards of the same name (except blank card).  If there is no
            card (or blank card), append at the end.
            """

            if before is not None or after is not None:
                self._relativeinsert((key, value), before=before, after=after)
            else:
                self[key] = value

    collections.abc.MutableSequence.register(Header)
    collections.abc.MutableMapping.register(Header)

    class _DelayedHeader:
        """
        Descriptor used to create the Header object from the header string that
        was stored in HDU._header_str when parsing the file.
        """

        def __get__(self, obj, owner=None):
            try:
                return obj.__dict__["_header"]
            except KeyError:
                if obj._header_str is not None:
                    hdr = Header.fromstring(obj._header_str)
                    obj._header_str = None
                else:
                    raise AttributeError(
                        "'{}' object has no attribute '_header'".format(
                            obj.__class__.__name__
                        )
                    )

                obj.__dict__["_header"] = hdr
                return hdr

        def __set__(self, obj, val):
            obj.__dict__["_header"] = val

        def __delete__(self, obj):
            del obj.__dict__["_header"]

    class _BasicHeaderCards:
        """
        This class allows to access cards with the _BasicHeader.cards attribute.

        This is needed because during the HDU class detection, some HDUs uses
        the .cards interface.  Cards cannot be modified here as the _BasicHeader
        object will be deleted once the HDU object is created.

        """

        def __init__(self, header):
            self.header = header

        def __getitem__(self, key):
            # .cards is a list of cards, so key here is an integer.
            # get the keyword name from its index.
            key = self.header._keys[key]
            # then we get the card from the _BasicHeader._cards list, or parse it
            # if needed.
            try:
                return self.header._cards[key]
            except KeyError:
                cardstr = self.header._raw_cards[key]
                card = Card.fromstring(cardstr)
                self.header._cards[key] = card
                return card

    class _BasicHeader(collections.abc.Mapping):
        """This class provides a fast header parsing, without all the additional
        features of the Header class. Here only standard keywords are parsed, no
        support for CONTINUE, HIERARCH, COMMENT, HISTORY, or rvkc.

        The raw card images are stored and parsed only if needed. The idea is that
        to create the HDU objects, only a small subset of standard cards is needed.
        Once a card is parsed, which is deferred to the Card class, the Card object
        is kept in a cache. This is useful because a small subset of cards is used
        a lot in the HDU creation process (NAXIS, XTENSION, ...).

        """

        def __init__(self, cards):
            # dict of (keywords, card images)
            self._raw_cards = cards
            self._keys = list(cards.keys())
            # dict of (keyword, Card object) storing the parsed cards
            self._cards = {}
            # the _BasicHeaderCards object allows to access Card objects from
            # keyword indices
            self.cards = _BasicHeaderCards(self)

            self._modified = False

        def __getitem__(self, key):
            if isinstance(key, numbers.Integral):
                key = self._keys[key]

            try:
                return self._cards[key].value
            except KeyError:
                # parse the Card and store it
                cardstr = self._raw_cards[key]
                self._cards[key] = card = Card.fromstring(cardstr)
                return card.value

        def __len__(self):
            return len(self._raw_cards)

        def __iter__(self):
            return iter(self._raw_cards)

        def index(self, keyword):
            return self._keys.index(keyword)

        @property
        def data_size(self):
            """
            Return the size (in bytes) of the data portion following the `Header`.
            """
            return _hdr_data_size(self)

        @property
        def data_size_padded(self):
            """
            Return the size (in bytes) of the data portion following the `Header`
            including padding.
            """
            size = self.data_size
            return size + _pad_length(size)

        @classmethod
        def fromfile(cls, fileobj):
            """The main method to parse a FITS header from a file. The parsing is
            done with the parse_header function implemented in Cython."""

            close_file = False
            if isinstance(fileobj, str):
                fileobj = open(fileobj, "rb")
                close_file = True

            try:
                header_str, cards = parse_header(fileobj)
                _check_padding(header_str, BLOCK_SIZE, False)
                return header_str, cls(cards)
            finally:
                if close_file:
                    fileobj.close()

    class _CardAccessor:
        """
        This is a generic class for wrapping a Header in such a way that you can
        use the header's slice/filtering capabilities to return a subset of cards
        and do something with them.

        This is sort of the opposite notion of the old CardList class--whereas
        Header used to use CardList to get lists of cards, this uses Header to get
        lists of cards.
        """

        # TODO: Consider giving this dict/list methods like Header itself
        def __init__(self, header):
            self._header = header

        def __repr__(self):
            return "\n".join(repr(c) for c in self._header._cards)

        def __len__(self):
            return len(self._header._cards)

        def __iter__(self):
            return iter(self._header._cards)

        def __eq__(self, other):
            # If the `other` item is a scalar we will still treat it as equal if
            # this _CardAccessor only contains one item
            if not isiterable(other) or isinstance(other, str):
                if len(self) == 1:
                    other = [other]
                else:
                    return False

            for a, b in itertools.zip_longest(self, other):
                if a != b:
                    return False
            else:
                return True

        def __ne__(self, other):
            return not (self == other)

        def __getitem__(self, item):
            if isinstance(item, slice) or self._header._haswildcard(item):
                return self.__class__(self._header[item])

            idx = self._header._cardindex(item)
            return self._header._cards[idx]

        def _setslice(self, item, value):
            """
            Helper for implementing __setitem__ on _CardAccessor subclasses; slices
            should always be handled in this same way.
            """

            if isinstance(item, slice) or self._header._haswildcard(item):
                if isinstance(item, slice):
                    indices = range(*item.indices(len(self)))
                else:
                    indices = self._header._wildcardmatch(item)
                if isinstance(value, str) or not isiterable(value):
                    value = itertools.repeat(value, len(indices))
                for idx, val in zip(indices, value):
                    self[idx] = val
                return True
            return False

    class _HeaderComments(_CardAccessor):
        """
        A class used internally by the Header class for the Header.comments
        attribute access.

        This object can be used to display all the keyword comments in the Header,
        or look up the comments on specific keywords.  It allows all the same forms
        of keyword lookup as the Header class itself, but returns comments instead
        of values.
        """

        def __iter__(self):
            for card in self._header._cards:
                yield card.comment

        def __repr__(self):
            """Returns a simple list of all keywords and their comments."""

            keyword_length = KEYWORD_LENGTH
            for card in self._header._cards:
                keyword_length = max(keyword_length, len(card.keyword))
            return "\n".join(
                "{:>{len}}  {}".format(c.keyword, c.comment, len=keyword_length)
                for c in self._header._cards
            )

        def __getitem__(self, item):
            """
            Slices and filter strings return a new _HeaderComments containing the
            returned cards.  Otherwise the comment of a single card is returned.
            """

            item = super().__getitem__(item)
            if isinstance(item, _HeaderComments):
                # The item key was a slice
                return item
            return item.comment

        def __setitem__(self, item, comment):
            """
            Set/update the comment on specified card or cards.

            Slice/filter updates work similarly to how Header.__setitem__ works.
            """

            if self._header._set_slice(item, comment, self):
                return

            # In this case, key/index errors should be raised; don't update
            # comments of nonexistent cards
            idx = self._header._cardindex(item)
            value = self._header[idx]
            self._header[idx] = (value, comment)

    class _HeaderCommentaryCards(_CardAccessor):
        """
        This is used to return a list-like sequence over all the values in the
        header for a given commentary keyword, such as HISTORY.
        """

        def __init__(self, header, keyword=""):
            super().__init__(header)
            self._keyword = keyword
            self._count = self._header.count(self._keyword)
            self._indices = slice(self._count).indices(self._count)

        # __len__ and __iter__ need to be overridden from the base class due to the
        # different approach this class has to take for slicing
        def __len__(self):
            return len(range(*self._indices))

        def __iter__(self):
            for idx in range(*self._indices):
                yield self._header[(self._keyword, idx)]

        def __repr__(self):
            return "\n".join(str(x) for x in self)

        def __getitem__(self, idx):
            if isinstance(idx, slice):
                n = self.__class__(self._header, self._keyword)
                n._indices = idx.indices(self._count)
                return n
            elif not isinstance(idx, numbers.Integral):
                raise ValueError(f"{self._keyword} index must be an integer")

            idx = list(range(*self._indices))[idx]
            return self._header[(self._keyword, idx)]

        def __setitem__(self, item, value):
            """
            Set the value of a specified commentary card or cards.

            Slice/filter updates work similarly to how Header.__setitem__ works.
            """

            if self._header._set_slice(item, value, self):
                return

            # In this case, key/index errors should be raised; don't update
            # comments of nonexistent cards
            self._header[(self._keyword, item)] = value

    def _block_size(sep):
        """
        Determine the size of a FITS header block if a non-blank separator is used
        between cards.
        """

        return BLOCK_SIZE + (len(sep) * (BLOCK_SIZE // Card.length - 1))

    def _pad_length(stringlen):
        """Bytes needed to pad the input stringlen to the next FITS block."""

        return (BLOCK_SIZE - (stringlen % BLOCK_SIZE)) % BLOCK_SIZE

    def _check_padding(header_str, block_size, is_eof, check_block_size=True):
        # Strip any zero-padding (see ticket #106)
        if header_str and header_str[-1] == "\0":
            if is_eof and header_str.strip("\0") == "":
                # TODO: Pass this warning to validation framework
                warnings.warn(
                    "Unexpected extra padding at the end of the file.  This "
                    "padding may not be preserved when saving changes.",
                    AstropyUserWarning,
                )
                raise EOFError()
            else:
                # Replace the illegal null bytes with spaces as required by
                # the FITS standard, and issue a nasty warning
                # TODO: Pass this warning to validation framework
                warnings.warn(
                    "Header block contains null bytes instead of spaces for "
                    "padding, and is not FITS-compliant. Nulls may be "
                    "replaced with spaces upon writing.",
                    AstropyUserWarning,
                )
                header_str.replace("\0", " ")

        if check_block_size and (len(header_str) % block_size) != 0:
            # This error message ignores the length of the separator for
            # now, but maybe it shouldn't?
            actual_len = len(header_str) - block_size + BLOCK_SIZE
            # TODO: Pass this error to validation framework
            raise ValueError(f"Header size is not multiple of {BLOCK_SIZE}: {actual_len}")

    def _hdr_data_size(header):
        """Calculate the data size (in bytes) following the given `Header`"""
        size = 0
        naxis = header.get("NAXIS", 0)
        if naxis > 0:
            size = 1
            for idx in range(naxis):
                size = size * header["NAXIS" + str(idx + 1)]
            bitpix = header["BITPIX"]
            gcount = header.get("GCOUNT", 1)
            pcount = header.get("PCOUNT", 0)
            size = abs(bitpix) * gcount * (pcount + size) // 8
        return size